At the beginning of the 20th Century, cinema emerged as a new form of narrative entertainment that was used differently throughout the world. In different places, people used the new art form in different ways, as there were no rules or instructions on how to tell stories with this medium yet. This branched out into different forms; most notably German Expressionism and Soviet Montage, both expressive forms of cinema; and realism, the opposite of expressive cinema.
The Cabinet Of Dr. Caligari was the film which created German Expressionism. Caligari’s innovation was to use mise-en-scène expressionistically, rather than realistically. Director Robert Weiene and his two production designers deliberately distorted everything within the frame. It’s all designed to look deliberately artificial and throw you off balance, to reflect the inner psychology of the characters; so the audience can experience the world as he does. Also, Fritz Lang was an architect before his work as a German Expressionist filmmaker, which shows in his work; as his films depict epic, grand spaces, especially shown in his 1927 film Metropolis.
Soviet Montage was another expressive form of cinema. At the time, there was virtually no raw film stock in the country as the government choked off imports, and Russia didn’t have the capacity to manufacture much of its own stock. So, filmmakers started studying films, and ended up spending as much time studying them as they did making them. Out of this came the world’s first film school, and the revolutionary filmmaker Lev Kuleshov. His discovery, the Kuleshov effect, showed how different clips cut together creates different meanings. The most revolutionary Soviet Montage films were that of Eisenstein’s Battleship Potemkin, and Vertov’s The Man With The Movie Camera.
André Bazin was a film critic and film theorist and wrote a many essays about film between the years 1944 and 1958, before he died at the young age of 40. Bazin treats cinema as a medium of duplicating reality, he sides much more with realist cinema than expressionist cinema. He treats it less of an artistic expression and more of a documentation of reality.
Bazin’s claim for an objective and pure cinema, and the directors that create film, is split into two groups; the imagists and the realists. The imagists employ a stylistic and semi-auteur approach, whereas realists base their integrity in reality. The imagists are then split into two groups, those working with the plastics (acting, composition, decor, lighting) and those working with editing (montagists). The realists do not distort time (like the montagists) or space (like the expressionists) but attempt to depict true reality.
He prefers a deeper depth of field and to us long takes, so that it could be as accurate depiction of reality as possible. The long take/wide shot set up that Bazin prefers makes the viewer the freedom to direct his/her own control over the viewing process, including what to look at, in what order, for how long, so they can make their own judgements about what they are watching. He thinks of montage as being untruthful to spatial integrity and also deceives the audience through its juxtapositioning. Bazin doesn’t think of film being art, he thinks of film being reality. Bazin believes of manipulating the viewer only through the use of mise-en-scéne rather than editing.
In Keaton’s ‘One Week’, both realist and expressive features are used. The realist features in this film are as follows:
In the opening sequence, Keaton’s character interacts with a policeman. This shows the urbanisation of areas, and the increasing concentration of policemen. Later on, Keaton’s character is given a plot of land. This was a scheme introduced by the government, to encourage people to travel west. This is also an ideal example of the American dream. He is also given a ‘flat pack’ house, which is something that also happened at the time of the making of this film. This shows the population of lesser inhabited areas in America.
Another realist feature that is used in this film is how wide shots are used to display the action. It lets it play out, and the viewer can choose where to look, rather than using the camera to focus the viewer’s attention. This is one of the perfect examples of ‘cinema verite’ in this film. Also throughout this film, deep focus is used to display a more accurate depiction of reality; something that Bazín wrote about being compulsory in cinema. Later, when Keaton climbs down the ladder on the side of the house, the camera tilts down to follow his movement. This is a realist feature, as the camera movement is motivated by character movement, rather than to manipulate and create an effect on the viewer.
The railroad, that poses a danger in this film, shows the development and industrialisation of America at the time. The west’s development was a key part of modern industrialised society during the 1920s. This is a realist feature as it shows a contemporary and very real event that was happening at the time. To show the train travelling down the tracks towards the house, it is shown in one long shot. This is a realist feature that Bazin endorses, as it shows reality uninterrupted by the editing of cinema. As every time the camera cuts, it subconsciencly reminds the viewer they are watching a film.
The expressive features of One Week are as follows:
The opening shot of the film is of a church bell framed in a decorative frame, symbolising a wedding. This is an expressive feature as it focuses the attention of the viewer on the bell, and it implies the occurrence of a wedding; rather than showing it, as a realist film would. The performance of the ‘Handy Hank’ character is very theatrical; not a natural depiction of human behaviour. It is played this way for comedic effect for the viewer; whereas, if this were following the rules of cinema veritè it would be played naturally, as realist cinema does not try to manipulate the audience like this character does.
Later in the film, when reading the letter, the camera cuts to a close up of it. This is an expressive feature, as Bazin says that close ups are not a realist feature as it points the viewer’s attention to it. When trying to escape Keaton’s character’s driver, the one his wife turned down, they jump onto another car while driving. This is then followed with the two cars parting, and Keaton getting stuck between the two. He is then hit by a motorcycle, which keeps driving with him on the front of it. This is definitely an expressive feature as he would not escape that collision injury free while staying on the front of the motorcycle. This comedic stunt is a very expressive feature.
A shot later on is framed within a circle. This is an expressive feature as it directs the audience where to look, opposed to allowing them to search the frame free of manipulation. Another expressive feature is the passing of time, through the use of a calendar. The date pages of the calendar are pulled away to show the days passing. This is an expressive feature as time is passing unrealistically fast.
To open on the new day, an iris shot is used to symbolise a passing of time. This being expressive as realist films let shots play out without cutting and without a change in time. After this parallel editing is used to show the wife cooking while Keaton building; which is expressive as it is not cinema verite. The wall of house spins around for comedic effect; which is expressive as house walls don’t spin around accidentally. The deformed house is similar to the mise-en-scène of German Expressionist films. The exaggerated spiked edges are what mostly make it so.
The floor stretching like a cartoon, rather than collapsing, is a very expressive feature. This is because ceilings/floors do not stretch like this, they collapse. The voyeuristic role of the audience is an expressive feature, as a hand goes over the lens of the camera as if it were a point of view shot as she climbs out of the bathtub. This is expressive as it selects the information shown to the audience, opposed to the method of cinema verite.
Later, we see the vignetting of the camera; which manipulates the attention of the viewer, and therefore is an expressive feature. After this, the house spins around in a storm; which is an expressive feature as it would mean the house would have been built on a turntable. This is unrealistic, and therefore not realist.
The house is transported by rolling it along on barrels, while being pulled by a car. This is very much an expressive feature, as this would be impossible. This is because a house weighs more than the weight that the barrel would be able to keep up. While being used for comedic effect, it does heavily use expressive elements in this scene. From one nail in the back of the car, the carriage of the car stays attached to the side of the house, which is an expressive feature, as the nail would not be able to keep the carriage and the person attached to the side of the house.
The realist features of One Week are as follows:
In the opening sequence, Keaton’s character interacts with a policeman. This shows the urbanisation of areas and the increasing concentration of policemen, and is therefore a realist feature. Later, Keaton’s character is given a plot of land. This was a scheme introduced by the government, to encourage people to travel west. This is also an ideal example of the American dream. He is given a ‘flat pack’ house, which was a part of this government ‘scheme’.
Wide shots are used to display the action. It lets it play out, and the viewer can choose where to look, rather than using the camera to focus the viewer’s attention. This is one of the perfect examples of ‘cinema verite’ in this film.
When Keaton climbs down the ladder on the side of the house, the camera tilts down to follow his movement. This is a realist feature, as the camera movement is motivated by character movement, rather than to manipulate and create an effect on the viewer.
The railroad that poses a danger in this film, shows the development and industrialisation of America at the time. The west’s development was a key part of modern industrialised society during the 1920s, and therefore is a realist feature. To show the train travelling down the tracks towards the house, it is shown in one long shot. This is a realist feature that Bazin endorses, as it shows reality uninterrupted by the editing of cinema, and follows the rules of cinema verite.
Keaton’s The Scarecrow also uses expressive and realist features; although, a lot more expressive features than realist. The expressive features are as follows:
The opening shot of the film shows the sun rising at an unrealistic speed, and then stops. This is expressive due to its unrealistic nature that is used to create narrative, show time passing and set the scene. Another expressive feature of this film are the theatrical performances of the two main characters. Their performances and facial expressions are exaggerated for comedic effect and to manipulate the viewer into feeling the same.
All of the furniture and objects in the house have multipurpose. This is exaggerated for comedic effect, but also shows how they have adapted to how little space they have. This is an expressive feature as every transformation of furniture is unrealistic, and purely there for a laugh. Such as the sofa turning into a bath, and the record player turning into an oven. The objects suspended above their table are used for the same purpose, to save space for them, and for comedic effect on the viewer. The fence that surrounds their house tilts and parts for them to climb through. This is an expressive feature as fences do not open up like this in reality.
Later on, when Keaton is being chased by the dog, the dog climbs up a ladder. This is an expressive feature as the dog would have had to been trained to accomplish this, and is there for comedic effect.
In their house, Keaton escapes using the bathtub contraption seen earlier. This is expressive, as a flap in the wall opens up so that a human can fit through purely for cmedic effect. After this, a trapdoor randomly opens up leading the dog to where Keaton’s character escaped to. This being expressive as there ‘coincidentally’ is a trapdoor right bellow the dog, for comedic purposes.
Keaton’s character is put through a shredder, but comes out whole, only with his clothes ripped off. This is expressive as he would have been shredded to death in reality; not just his clothes would’ve been destroyed, he would have been too.
Keaton escapes the farmer by changing into a scarecrow costume. This is expressive as he does it unrealistically quickly, and it cuts away as he does so; a feature that goes against cinema verite. His love interest looks towards the camera in confusion. This is expressive, as plays on the voyeristic role of the viewer.
To again escape the farmer, Keaton does a handstand to cross the river, and inevitably gets more wet than if he had just ran across. This is very expressive feature, as it purely exists to entertain the viewer and is unrealistically unintelligent. When Keaton’s friend gets into a car it almost tips over due to his weight. This is unrealistic as it is for comedic effect on the viewer, as a man of any size would not outwiegh a car engine.
The Scarecrow‘s realist features are as follows:
Near the opening of the film, when speaking about the woman who is their love interest, they mention how she votes. This is a realist feature as contemporary ideas towards women and political perspective informed marriage and relationships at the time.
The Scarecrow‘s expressive features are as follows:
The opening shot of the film shows the sun rising at an unrealistic speed, and then stops. This is expressive due to its unrealistic nature that is used to create narrative and set the scene. Another expressive feature of this film are the theatrical performances of the two main characters. Their performances and facial expressions are exaggerated for comedic effect and to manipulate the viewer into feeling the same, which is threfore expressive.
All of the furniture and objects in the house have multipurpose. This is exaggerated for comedic effect, but also shows how they have adapted to how little space they have. This is an expressive feature as every transformation of furniture is unrealistic, and purely there for a laugh. Such as the sofa turning into a bath, and the record player turning into an oven. The objects suspended above their table are used for the same purpose, to save space for them, and for comedic effect on the viewer. The fence that surrounds their house tilts and parts for them to climb through. This is an expressive feature as fences do not open up like this in reality.
Later on, when Keaton is being chased by the dog, the dog climbs up a ladder. This is an expressive feature as the dog would have had to been trained to accomplish this, and is there for comedic effect. After this, Keaton escapes using the bathtub contraption seen earlier. This is expressive, as a flap in the wall opens up so that a human can fit through purely for comedic effect. In the house, a trapdoor randomly opens up leading the dog to where Keaton’s character escapes to. This being expressive as there ‘coincidentally’ is a trapdoor right bellow the dog, for comedic purposes.
Keaton’s character is put through a shredder, but comes out whole, only with his clothes ripped off. This is expressive as he would have been shredded to death in reality; not just his clothes would’ve been destroyed, he would have been too.
Keaton escapes the farmer by changing into a scarecrow costume. This is expressive as he does it unrealistically quickly, and it cuts away as he does so, a feature that goes against cinema verite. After this, Keaton’s character’s love interest looks towards the camera in confusion. This is expressive, as it plays on the voyeristic role of the viewer.
To again escape the farmer, Keaton does a handstand to cross the river, and inevitably gets more wet than if he had just ran across. This is very expressive feature, as it purely exists to entertain the viewer and is unrealistically unintelligent.
When Keaton’s friend gets into a car it almost tips over due to his weight. This is unrealistic as it is for comedic effect on the viewer, as a man of any size would not outwiegh a car engine.
In Keaton’s The High Sign, both realist and expressive features are used. The realsit features are as follows:
Near the opening of the film, Keaton’s character uses a newspaper to find a work. This is a realist feature as at, the time, this would have been how people would have advertised jobs and found work.
The gang that Keaton’s character joins is a realist feature of the film; as during the early 20th Century, the time that this film was made, gangs and cults were a big issue in America. Keaton’s character is ordered to assassinate a man because of his political stance, which was another big problem of the era; early 20th Century America.
The expressive features of The High Sign are as follows:
The opening of the film, and throughout the rest of the film, titlecards are used to provide explanation to the viewer as to what is happeing in the scene, which means it is an expressive feature.
Keaton’s character falls off of a train travelling at high speeds. This is an expressive feature, as to ‘fall’ off of a train and remain uninjured is very rare, and is purely there for comedic effect on the viewer. His character grabs someones newspaper from their pocket while they are riding on a carousel. This is an expressive featre, as the chances of taking someone’s newspaper in that situation unnoticed is near impossible to do. While unfolding the newspaper, it quadruples in size. This is for comedic effect on the viewer, as no newspaper is realistically this big.
The audience is then shown a closeup of the newspaper ad that has caught Keaton’s character’s attention. This directly points the viewer’s attention as to where to look, which makes it an expressive feature, as the filmmaker is manipulating the viewer’s freedom to search the frame.
Later, Keaton’s character aim a gun at one of three bottles, and yet a random one, which he didn’t aim the gun at, breaks. This is expressive, as it comedicly shows how bad he is at shooting, as it is impossible to shoot a bottle that you did not aim for. After this, Keaton’s bad aim leads him to shoot a stranger. This man then jumps, as if he had been kicked. In reality, he would be bleeding to death on the floor; but instaed, he runs away as if he has been kicked. This is for comedic effect on the viewer.
Keaton’s love interest is shown using a vignette later in the film. This goes against the idea of cinema verite, as it manipulates the viewer, and controls where they look in the frame.
Keaton’s character is chased by the gang/cult through the house. Creative contraptions are used to escape from one room to the other. A shot of the house can then be seen, showing a ‘doll’s house’ view of the house, and the characters travelling from each room. This is very expressive, as there is no way to get a shot like that without removing an entire side of the house, which is impossible without consequential structural damaging.
There are both realist and expressive features also used in Keaton’s Cops. See the realist features below:
The opening of the film shows the protagonist’s love interest says she won’t marry him until he ecomes a “big business man”. This is a realist feature, as it shows marriage as more of an economic proposition than a unity of love, like it was mostly vieweed as at the time.
Keaton’s character is at one point accused of stealing a middle class man’s wallet, when in fact he was returning it. Ths shows the difference between social classes at the time and the prejudice that the middle class expressed to the working class.
The main expressive feature is that in the opening shot of the film, Keaton is shown through metal bars; giving the impression to the audience that he is in prison, when in reality he is not. Instead he is standing behind the gates to his love interest’s house. This manipulates the viewer’s thoughts, as they think he is in jail, when he is actually not. Also, the gates seperating him and his love interest symbolises his entrapment in his class, and the seperation beteen these two classes, making it even more of an expressive feature.
In conclusion, during the era of silent cinema the ‘rules’ and ‘conventionality’ of cinema was created. It was a new art form, that was being used differently in different countries and different approaches could be taken when creating a film.
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